Through a Pin Hole: A Thought Experiment

Many scientists have theorized against the acceleration of the universe’s expansion. Some pointed to the fact that the “surface brightnesses of the near and far galaxies are identical” (Sci-news 2014), or to the alternative that “the mass of everything is increasing” (The Daily Galaxy 2013). 

A few days ago, I embarked on a thought experiment. At this time, dark energy is used to explain the acceleration of the universe’s expansion. However, nothing has been found YET. Maybe, dark energy a we know it does not exist. Maybe, energy as such does not exist at all. Or maybe, we’ve been looking at it from the wrong perspective. I began thinking that maybe dark energy is a fictitious concept used to compensate for our current lack of knowledge of the true course of the universe’s motion; like retrograde, maybe in a hundred years or so, the human race will look back at the time period when universal accelerating expansion was the accepted theory and smile an amused smile. I am not by any means claiming perfect knowledge of what we currently know about the universe, this is merely a thought experiment for the pleasure of thought and novelty.

Originally, I observed the model of the expanding balloon. Cool, I thought. It seemed to capture the concepts we covered in Earth and Space class pretty well: the spreading of the stars and the resulting dimming of their light. I tried to find a reason as to why the universe may be accelerating in its expansion via the expanding balloon model. Is it possible that the force that results in the universe’s expansion has always been constant, but that the fabric of the universe, as it stretches and thins, becomes increasingly elastic causing it to be expanding faster. Just as it is easier to blow a balloon once it is expanded, the universe could be easier expanded by the same force, resulting in acceleration. Maybe.

I then tried to reframe the problem. If we see that the universe is expanding from our perspective, what else could that mean relatively. Just as a hard right turn in a car would lead you to believe in a fictitious force pushing you to the left, what could the accelerating expansion mean if we observed the phenomenon from a different frame of reference? I tried to play around with the vectors on a little diagram I drew on a restaurant napkin:

Something like this...

This is what we see from Earth (blue one): that everything is moving away from our planet at increasing speed.

Rearranging the vectors,

This is what we get.

This diagram shows our current understanding, I believe, of the universe’s expansion. The diagram still, though, depicts that things are moving away from the Earth as objects that are further away moves faster than what is closer to us. Maybe we are on our way to a “Big Crunch” (The Physics of the Universe 2009) now.

Let’s rearrange the vectors one last time...

Now, although the motions of the universe are still the same from the perspective of Earth, it now seems as though the universe is not expanding outwards, but instead, on its way down. To where? I assume towards the largest mass in the universe which could have formed at the source of the big bang, at which time gravity may have been strong enough between the surrounding masses to coalesce back to the “center” as the distance between them would be the smallest in relativity to the other celestial bodies in the universe. However, the most interesting part about this model (although it is flawed, and I will explain why), is that there is no need for a mysterious energy to cause the expansion of the universe. All there is in this model is the force of gravity pulling everything back down, and that the bodies closer to the single most gigantic mass will feel a greater, faster, pull than the bodies beyond it. We will still perceive Hubble’s redshift and, seemingly, universal expansion, but by looking at it from a different frame of reference, we can take out the factor of dark energy.

Now... the flaw:

If we were to place a body of mass beside the Earth, everything falls apart.

Hubble observed that all bodies of mass are moving away from Earth. Here, we see that some celestial bodies will look as though it is moving towards Earth. So, could dark energy be the only way to solve this conundrum?

Maybe not.

Yes, this is not a proper visualization of the big bang theory, but let us imagine it for a second. If we injected an explosive into the center of an orange and detonated it, the remnants would be positioned kind of like this:

The red dot represents the source of explosion, where the center of the orange was. Because the force of explosion acts on the inside of the orange more than it does to the outer layer of the orange, most of the remnants will fall far from the center of explosion, leaving few pieces close to it. If this were a representation of the big bang, and the green dots represented celestial bodies, the force of gravity would cause the universe to look like this:

This model can explain why everything seems to be moving away from Earth. Maybe there are more than one of the theorized source of immense gravitational force, causing everything to be moving away from each other. Note that the scale of this illustration is way off in the fact that the Earth and everything around us should be much much much much much smaller in comparison to the rim of the universe, and much further from the edge than as depicted. Why can’t we, from Earth, then, see the rim? Two possibilities: one, because their gravitational force sucks light in instead of emits it, or, two, because it is too far away and light from things near them have not had time to reach us.

The flaw with this model is the difference in the rates of acceleration between things that are distant from Earth. From our perspective, things that are just, relatively, slightly further away move much faster than things closer to us even though the distance between them is, in the grand scheme, very small. If the source of gravitational force is so far away, that would mean that it would act on Earth and all its neighbours with about the same force, causing them to all move with the same speed and accelerate at the same rate.

Or maybe, what we perceive as being a huge difference in acceleration is actually not that big at all. After all, we have been looking at the vastness of our universe through our small eyes; observing an ocean of wonders through a single, relatively, infinitesimal pin hole.

Do we as a human race expect to get our understanding of the universe perfectly correct with the guesses we make when observing though this pin hole? No. But the joy of not knowing is much more powerful than any mass’ force of gravity. The wonder transcends all man made boundaries and brings society closer together in our collective attempt to understanding the mysterious and wonderful universe that we live in.

Bibliography:

The Physics of the Universe. "The Big Bang and the Big Crunch." The Physics of the Universe. N.p., 2009. Web. 15 Jan. 2015. 

<http://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/topics_bigbang.html>.

Sci-News. "Universe Is Not Expanding After All, Controversial Study Suggests." Breaking Science News SciNewscom. N.p., 2 May 2014. Web. 18 Jan. 2015. <http://www.sci-news.com/astronomy/ science-universe-not-expanding-01940.html>.

The Daily Galaxy. "’The Universe Is Not Expanding’ --A Radical Alternative to Big Bang Cosmology." The Daily Galaxy --Great Discoveries Channel: Sci, Space, Tech. N.p., 20 May 2014. Web. 18 Jan. 2015. <http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2014/05/the- universe- is-not-expanding-an-alternate-theory-to-big-bang- cosmology.html>.

Volcanic Prowess

The Terra-ble Monsters of Indonesia

Image 1. Vulcan, Roman God of Fire. The inspiration for the name "Volcano"

          On the April of 2006, back when I was living in Indonesia (my home country), as a child, I recall sitting in my parents’ room watching the news often. It was less out of interest, but rather more due to the fact that my dad loved to watch the news whenever he is working or simply just relaxing. My dad was working away on his laptop in my peripheral vision as I stared in awe at the television; it was tuned to the local CNN channel, and the anchorman was presenting the news on the recent volcanic eruption that occurred in Central Java. The mountain’s name was Gunung Merapi, in English, it literally translates to Fire Mountain. I watched the constantly repeating 20 second footage of the eruption over and over again. The volcano is still active to this day and it has been regularly erupting since 1548. It’s most recent eruption was on 25th of October 2010 (Volcanic Discovery).

Video 1. Gunung Merapi Eruption

          When the TV was turned off by my mother, suggesting that I should go to bed, I became curious about volcanoes, I wanted to know more! What was the science behind volcanoes and its eruptions? The Earth throwing a tantrum seemed to be a pretty good hypothesis back then. I questioned the new genius who just moved into my house, his name was Google. It turns out, as he told me, that volcanoes are formed due to the convergence and divergence of Earth’s tectonic plates, or the natural manipulation of Earth’s crust (National Geographic). They create a fracture on the planet’s surface that allow the escape of lava and gasses from the magma chambers located below the Earth’s surface. Volcanoes can be classified by its lava composition or lava texture. They are also classified by its frequency of eruption; in familiar terms, active or dormant. Eruptions occur when gas is released during the compression (phreatomagmatic eruptions), decompression (magmatic eruption), or superheating (phreatic eruption) of gases within the magma (National Geographic). 

Image 2. Diagram of Volcanic Formation

Video 2. National Geographic's explanation of volcanic formation

          This raised more questions for me. Although slightly more trivial, I wanted to know specifically, the world’s largest volcanic eruption. What was it? Where was it? WHY was it? So what I did was, again, question the omniscient Google, whom I personified in my mind as a young professor with huge round glasses, attire: Business casual. I found out that the largest ever volcanic eruption was located in INDONESIA! (So proud) It occurred in April 10, 1815. Mount Tambora, located in Sumbawa, my father’s birthplace, erupted with a magnitude of 7 on the VEI, the second highest rating on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (Our Amazing Planet). Even citizens 1,930 km away heard the explosion. That’s the length of 17,600 football fields. The death toll was approximately 71,000 people. Although about 11,500 people died of the direct eruption, the majority of the deaths were due to the ashes spoiling agricultural productivity and causing disease (Volcano Discovery). The effects of the ashes and the spewed sulfur dioxide did not simply stop at Indonesia, far from it in fact. Because of Tambora’s eruption, 1816 was known as the “Year without a Summer”. The average global temperatures fell by about 0.4-0.7 degrees celsius. Weather in Northern America and Europe was impacted drastically; snowfall was observed by the good citizens of Albany, New York in the month June! As for the good crops of New York (and northern China, for that matter), frost got to them and killed them off (Evans). “Huge” is a huge understatement when describing the great Tambora eruption. FUN FACT: In 1816, Mary Shelley and her friends stayed indoors for most of June due to the volcanic winter. They then held a competition amongst themselves to see who could write the scariest story. Frankenstein born and the rest is history (The National Center For Atmospheric Research).

        Video 3. Representation of Tambora's climatic impact.                                   Image 3. One of Tambora's byproducts

          Another famous Indonesian volcanic eruption is the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. I remember watching a movie in the third grade, called Krakatoa: The Last Days, and the stress it brought me even though I was watching it in the safety and comfort of my classroom. Even without the additional Hollywood sparkle sparkle, the explosion was measured to be 13,000 times the power of the Hiroshima atomic bomb (Volcano Discovery). the eruption was so big, it destroyed two thirds of Krakatoa’s host island (Australian Government) and its resulting sound was considered to be the loudest sound ever heard in modern history (Dunk), with a decibel level of 310dB; it was heard 3100 miles away and was able to crack one foot thick concrete 300 miles away. To put it into perspective, a person would die from the power of a sound wave at 202dB (Decibel car). Bam.

Image 4. Krakatoa's sound radius (Loudest ever recorded sound)

          I then thought, as I do I do subscribe to the belief of Yin and Yang, with so much negative effects, volcanoes are bound to have tremendous positive effects as well. Sure enough there were a multitude of them. For one, volcanoes are a huge source of igneous rocks, such as pumice. These rocks have applications in our daily lives, thus helping us live an easier life and helping our economy through its sales. Speaking of economy, volcanoes also attract a lot of tourists looking to take wonderful selfies. The lava and ash deposited on the ground after an eruption acts as a ferilizer, providing nutrients for the soil and improving agricultural productivity (true embodiment of yin and yang) (BBC).

Image 5. Pumice (used for lightweight concrete)

Image 6. Volcano tourist

          Where there is a vice, there is a virtue. Volcanoes are no exception. Although, as we have seen, volcanoes possess a caliber of power that is beyond belief. Its destructive forces are unparalleled, as portrayed by Mt. Tambora and Krakatoa. Even so, they bring the world some economical benefits, along with some great explosions for Google images.

Image 7. Volcanoes are photogenic

Bibliography :

Australian Government. (n.d.). The Eruption of Krakatoa. Retrieved October 19, 2014, from http://www.bom.gov.au/tsunami/history/1883.shtml

BBC. (2012, October 15). Volcanoes and Volcanic Eruptions. Retrieved October 19, 2014, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/natural_hazards/volcanoes_rev6.shtml

Decibel Car. (n.d.). Decibel Equivalent Table (What's How Loud). Retrieved October 19, 2014, from http://www.decibelcar.com/menugeneric/87.html

Dunk, M. (2009, July 31). Will Krakatoa rock the world again? Retrieved October 19, 2014, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1203028/Will-Krakatoa-rock-world-Last-time-killed-thousands-changed-weather-years-deadlier.html

Evans, R. (2002, July 1). History, Travel, Arts, Science, People, Places | Smithsonian. Retrieved October 19, 2014, from http://www.smithsonianmag.com/ist/?next=/history/blast-from-the-past-65102374/

National Geographic. (n.d.). Volcano Facts, Volcano Information, Volcano Videos, Volcano Photos - National Geographic. Retrieved October 19, 2014, from http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters/volcano-profile/

Our Amazing Planet. (2011, June 10). The 10 Biggest Volcanic Eruptions in History. Retrieved October 19, 2014, from http://www.livescience.com/30507-volcanoes-biggest-history.html

The National Center For Atmospheric Research. (2012, January 1). Mount Tambora and The Year Without a Summer. Retrieved October 19, 2014, from http://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/mount-tambora-and-year-without-summer

Volcano Discovery. (2012, April 12). Merapi. Retrieved October 19, 2014, from http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/tambora.html

Volcano Discovery. (2012, April 12). Tambora. Retrieved October 19, 2014, from http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/tambora.html

Tough Beauty

The True Value of Diamonds

Not only are diamonds one of the most expensive minerals in the world, they are among the most valuable substances on Earth overall, and there are many reasons for this fact. Diamonds possess the, apparently, largely sought-for characteristics of durability, rarity, brilliance, and fire. The largest reasons for the conceived value of diamonds are actually brilliant marketing by De Beers company and the controlled supply of the mineral (International Gem Society). To set the facts straight, diamonds are not the rarest of materials, nor are they the most expensive gems, nor are they rated the best in terms of aesthetics, but they are valuable in their own right. The marketing of diamonds can be discussed in further detail, but for this time, only the geological aspects of the diamonds’ value will be discussed.

Men have, throughout the ages, ridiculed women for having diamonds be regarded as their best friend; tiny, shiny, feminine, pieces of compressed carbon. Shallow. On the other hand, Men have dogs as their best friends; brilliant, empathetic, and proven life-saving (relatively) civilized tetrapods. What these judgemental men might not know is that Diamonds are literally the toughest things in the world! On the scale of hardness known as the Mohs scale, Diamonds are at the top of the food chain, sitting at a hardness level of 10. To be specific, this means that diamonds can scratch any and all other substances known to men. In addition, nothing can scratch and cut diamonds besides other diamonds. The hardness of the diamond is due to the molecular structure of diamonds; they are made of “carbon atoms linked together in a diamond lattice structure. Forming a tetrahedral unit, each carbon atom is covalently bonded with four other carbon atoms” (Structure and Property). This bonding results in an incredibly strong molecule. Diamonds have such spectacular properties of strength that scientists in Penn State University have researched for nearly a century, and finally discovered, a method to “produce ultra-thin [, ultra-strong], diamond nanothreads that has a wide array of practical uses” (Penn State, 2014). In other words, if a German Shepherd attempted to bite, scratch, and chew at a piece of diamond, the only thing that might be damaged, is the poor dog’s teeth and nails, which on the mohs scale sits at a 5 and a 2.5 respectively (Mohs Scale of Hardness). 

Moreover, diamonds are “virtually fireproof” as they are able to withstand 700 degrees celsius, whereas house fires usually measure about 600 degrees celsius (Gemology Institute of America Inc.). So, think twice before underestimating the manliness of these seemingly feeble, less-tough-than-tough-than-dogs, minerals. The beauty of diamonds coupled with its durability makes it the perfect artefact to be a long-lasting representative for cherished memories; and that is invaluable.

Hardness is definitely one factor of why diamonds are so valuable, but there are still many more reasons to discuss. Rarity is one of these reasons. All gems, including diamonds, are rare as they only “compose a small fraction of the Earth” (International Gem Society). Approximately 26,000 kg of diamonds are mined annually. In total, only 900,000 kg of diamonds have been mined since the beginning of the diamond-mining trend in the 1870s. However, only 20% of that are of “true gem-quality”. Due to diamonds’ rarity, they are priced at approximately $13,600 per carat (each carat is equivalent to 0.2 grams) (International Gem Society). The huge price tag is mostly as a result of the limited players in the industry and the brilliant marketing and mystery attached to the diamond industry. That is a story for another day. Nevertheless, diamonds are not, by any means, common, and they are undeniably, valuable gems.

I am from the beautiful country of Indonesia, and in the indonesian language, diamonds actually translate to berlian. Punch berlian into Google translate and you will find that it also means shine, sparkle, and brilliance. No surprise. Brilliance is another trait that really increases the value of diamonds, although, similar to its rarity, diamonds are not the most brilliant gemstone in the world. Nevertheless, again like its rarity, it is extremely brilliant in its own right. Diamonds’ exceptional brilliance is caused by its cutting and its very high refractive index; a 2.41 (Diamond 4Cs Education). This means that light travels 2.41 times slower in diamond than it does in a vacuum. The high level of the bending of light results in the great shine and sparkle that, not only women, but all people have come to know, love, and value.

Other than the magnificent brilliance of a carat of diamond, diamonds are also known for their fire, also known as light dispersion. A gemstone’s fire is its ability to separate white light into the rainbow’s many colours. Diamond has “a really high dispersion of .044” (Gemology Institute of America Inc.). Colour is a huge aspect of aesthetic value and there is something really special about a diamond’s emission of a colourful spectrum out of its colourless self.

Diamonds have been the poster boys of “value” for many generations, worn on the hands of many iconic media personalities such as the likes of Marilyn Monroe. Diamonds are incredibly strong, aesthetically amazing, and very precious. Its chemical and physical properties deem the gemstone to be a timely piece of undying value. Although diamonds may not be the best and brightest of all the gemstones, what they represent in the lives of the human race far outweighs its physical value. Through it all, diamonds have, regardless of their price tag, have in the minds of the people, become utterly priceless.

Bibliography

Are diamonds really rare? Myths and misconceptions about diamonds - International Gem Society IGS. (n.d.). Retrieved September 21, 2014, from http://www.gemsociety.org/article/are-diamonds-really-rare/

Diamond 4Cs Education - Introduction. (n.d.). Retrieved September 21, 2014, from http://gia4cs.gia.edu/en-us/the-diamond-4-cs.htm

Diamond: Fun Facts - Gemology Institute of America Incorporated (n.d.). Retrieved September 21, 2014, from http://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research-diamond-fun-facts

Mohs Scale of Hardness. (n.d.). Retrieved September 21, 2014, from http://www.gemologyonline.com/mohs.html

Penn State. (2014, September 21). Smallest possible diamonds form ultra-thin nanothreads. ScienceDaily. Retrieved September 21, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/09/140921145118.htm

Structure and Property. (n.d.). Retrieved September 21, 2014, from http://www.info-diamond.com/polished/characteristic.html

The Fall of our Stars

A Burning Passion

As a child, have you ever held your index finger and thumb an arm length away in front of your eyes and aligned the gap between your fingers with the line of sight of your right eye so that it points towards one of the greatest, most magnificent, objects ever to be moulded by the hand of God; the stars. You squint and pinch that distant image to bring it closer to home, to bring it to your touch. You know that song? By The Beatles, who are stars in their own right. Lucy in the sky with Diamonds. Despite all its controversies, it still illustrates that innate dream of human beings to interact with the final frontier and unfold the mysteries of space.

What you might not know is our humble planet is bombarded by millions of pieces of space each day. Although most of them will vapourize as it enters our atmosphere, some actually make it onto our ground. We call these somethings, meteorites. Put a meteorite on your palm, and voila, you have just placed a piece of outer space in your hands. Cool right? Let’s learn more about these magnificent space rocks.

First of all, when people talk about shooting stars, they actually mean meteors... and meteors are most definitely not stars. So let me rephrase the title; The Fall of our Meteors. When asteroids collide with other extraterrestrial matter, such as other asteroids, smaller, though still considerably large pieces break off (<10 m across). These smaller but not so small space rocks are called meteoroids. As it comes knocking on Earth’s door, enters, and burns due to the friction caused by Earth’s atmosphere, they are called meteors. You may have seen quick streaks of light fly across the sky once, or if you’re lucky, multiple times. You know the ones you wish on? That light is caused by the burning of the meteors. Lastly, as mentioned previously, if the meteors were big enough to survive complete vapourization, they will finally arrive on earth as a meteorite waiting for someone, it could be you, to pick it up. Unfortunately, most meteorites fall into our oceans since 71% of our planet’s surface is covered in water. 

Now, for how meteorites are classified. Scientists group them based on what they are made of, their chemical composition and mineralogy. If they are made up of rocky silicate minerals, they would be called stony. If they are made of metallic material, they are iron meteorites. Then there are some with mixtures of the two; called stony-iron meteorites. 94% of meteorites are stony. Out of this 94%, 86% contain chondrules; small, round pieces of melted silicate minerals; they are called chondrites. Chondrites are about 4.55 billion years old. So, you think it’s cool to hold a dinosaur fossil because it is so old? Touch a chondrite and you would be leaving your fingerprint on something seventy times as old as the last dinosaurs; you would be holding what is known to be the building blocks of planets.Meteorites that were observed as they fall to the ground and later taken for research are called falls. If they were found without having observed the actual fall, they are called finds. 

Not all meteorites create giant craters; of course, not all of them all big enough to wipe out an entire race of species. Most of the time, small meteorites would fall at terminal velocity, and create small pits in the ground and small dents on roofs. But, yes, there are slightly more exciting meteors written in history. For one, the famous dinosaur extinction meteor, said to be six miles wide crashed into earth creating a crater 110 miles in diameter (believed to be in Yucatan, Mexico). To be clear, the dinosaurs didn’t die of the fire or sonic boom caused by the meteor crash. They died due to the disruption of the food chain as a result of the dust that blocked the sun for several months. Another meteorite that was about six miles wide created the largest impact crater on Earth; Vredefort dome; 186 miles wide 186 MILES WIDE!!!!! It is about 2 billion years old and it is located in South Africa. One that is closer to home, The ol’ Sudbury Basin; location: Greater Sudbury, Ontario. It is a crater that is home to 162,000 good folks. The crater contains a lot of copper. However, miners found that the crater contained a lot of nickel, which is more valuable. Today, 10% of the world’s nickel comes from the crater created by a giant meteorite 1.85 billion years ago. Thank you giant meteorite, for supplying our good society with some good nickel, and some great scientific knowledge.